Breeders are maintained by chicken processors. Once eggs hatch, chicks receive vaccinations before being sent to integrated growers for 30-45 days of feed supplied by the processor. Once reaching the desired processing weight, the chickens are returned to the processing facility for slaughtering and inspection. The meat is processed into various cuts or sold as whole chickens. The meat is packaged at the processor's facility and distributed to export or domestic markets.

Pork is the world’s most produced, and second most traded meat. Asia accounts for more than half of global pork production, yet it remains the world's largest importer, consuming over 60% of global supply. Europe is the second-largest pork-producing region but, unlike Asia, it is a net exporter. In contrast, regions such as the Middle East consume very little pork due to religious restrictions.

Producing pork at scale depends on several critical factors. Feed, which accounts for 60%-70% of production costs, must be both accessible and of high quality. Animal health is also essential—preventing diseases like African Swine Flu with strong veterinary care, vaccinations, and biosecurity safeguards productivity. While domestic demand drives industry growth, access to global markets enhances resilience. Diversified market access allows exporters to reduce waste and losses by commercializing all parts and cuts of the pork. In frozen form, the most heavily traded cut is the pork belly.

Vertical integration, as practiced in countries such as Spain, enhances efficiency and traceability across the entire supply chain—from the typical six-month growing cycle of pigs to the commercialization of fresh and frozen meat and byproducts. 

In Spain, pigs are typically sent to abattoir at the age of six months, with corn, feed wheat, barley, and soybean meal each providing around a quarter of the feed. In China, more soybean meal and corn are used in place of wheat and barley. 

Pork is a key source of animal protein across many regions, particularly in East Asia, parts of Europe, and the Americas. In China and South Korea, per capita consumption stands at 40.2 kg and 41.4 kg, respectively. European countries, such as Spain and Poland, report some of the highest levels, at 56.2 kg and 53.6 kg per capita, according to the FAO. In the Americas, pork also plays an important dietary role, with the US consuming 29.6 kg per capita and Mexico 21.8 kg. 

The most significant trade flow for pork is from Spain to Japan. Japan has maintained a consistent import volume, averaging 1.4 million mt from 2017 to the present. In 2023, Japan imported 164,000 mt of pork from Spain, which accounts for 32% of Japan’s total pork imports, according to the Agriculture & Livestock Industries Corp.

The growth cycle of pigs from birth to market size takes about six months. During the first week of life, piglets are entirely dependent on their mother’s milk, with colostrum intake being crucial for building their immunity during the first three weeks. 

As they are weaned at three to four weeks, piglets transition from their mother’s milk to solid feed, which requires careful management to ensure their health and minimize stress. After weaning, piglets enter the four- to 10-week growing phase, during which they grow rapidly, to reach 10-25 kg. During this stage, they are introduced to starter feeds that are high in protein and receive regular health checks to prevent disease. 

Pigs in the finishing phase are provided a balanced diet to optimize their growth, reaching market weights of 100-120 kg. As they approach market readiness, pigs undergo quality grading before being transported to market facilities for further processing. 

Seasonality also influences pig growth. Pigs tend to grow faster during the warmer months of spring and summer, as higher temperatures promote better feed intake and digestion. Conversely, pigs may experience slower growth during fall and winter. Lower temperatures can reduce feed intake, as pigs often expend more energy to maintain body temperature. Additionally, growth can be hindered further if housing conditions are not optimal or if health challenges arise from colder weather. 

Seasonal fluctuations influence global pork demand due to cultural practices, festivals, and economic factors. In Asia, holidays such as Lunar New Year and Mid-Autumn Festival are associated with popular pork dishes, while in Europe, demand peaks during Christmas and other festive seasons. A country’s economy also plays a key role in pork consumption, as pork tends to be more expensive than chicken.  

Disease, particularly ASF and FMD, remains the most disruptive factor in the pork supply chain. When a disease outbreak occurs, it disrupts production practices, leads to trade restrictions, increases production costs, raises mortality rates, and undermines market confidence, all of which negatively affects pork supply and demand. 

The global beef trade is shaped by a network of production surpluses, consumption trends, and trade dependencies. Key producers include the US, which accounts for 20% of global beef production; Brazil, 19%; and China, 13%, according to USDA data for 2024. 

Brazil’s increased export capacity gives it a dominant role in global trade, supplying beef to markets that cannot meet domestic demand even amid strong production, such as the US and China. USDA data showed that Brazilian beef exports accounted for 28% of global trade, followed by Australia, 14%, and India, 12%. 

Among key consumers, the US, China, and the EU have strong domestic beef markets. However, some of the world’s largest importers, notably China, Japan, South Korea, the US (despite being a top producer), and countries in the Middle East, rely heavily on imports to meet the growing preferences of consumers, changing dietary habits, and the limitations of domestic production. This dependency underpins the necessity for a robust, responsive, and globally interconnected beef trade network. 

In 2024, the average beef consumption in Australia is projected at 26.9 kg per capita. Domestic utilization accounts for 30% of total beef production, with the remainder directed to exports. Australian cattle are primarily grass-fed, then grain-finished in feedlots, where their stay ranges from 30 to 600 days, depending on their market destination. Cattle destined for the domestic market typically spend up to 100 days in feedlots, while those for export generally remain longer. The feed composition comprises 70%-80% grain, supplemented with cottonseed, silage, molasses, straw, vegetable oil, and mineral/vitamin premix. Among the most traded products is the 90CL lean beef trimmings, primarily exported to the US for hamburger production. 

Several interlinked variables drive global beef prices. Among the primary price influencers are feed costs, global supply and demand balances, climate patterns, trade access, currency fluctuations, and geopolitical stability.  

Feed—especially corn and soybean meal—represents one of the most significant cost components in beef production. Therefore, rising feed prices often translate into higher beef prices. In Brazil, about 70% of beef cattle production comes from animals finished on grass, but climate risks, pasture conditions and phytosanitary diseases tend to be greater in Brazilian beef production. This factor brings greater competitiveness in beef prices compared with other suppliers, attracting many buyers due to greater affordability. 

Tariffs, quotas, and sanitary trade barriers have increasingly come to the forefront as influential price levers. Countries aiming to protect domestic producers or control market exposure often impose tariff rate quotas, set minimum price thresholds, or enact technical barriers to trade. For instance, China has frequently adjusted its import licensing, while the EU maintains strict sanitary and quality standards under its Common Agricultural Policy. The US limits imports of Brazililan beef to 65,000 mt/year. 

In recent years, protectionist policies and non-tariff barriers have tightened global supply routes, making certain markets more volatile. These restrictions not only distort price parity among suppliers but also prompt sudden shifts in trade flow. For example, when Indonesia reduced quotas for Indian buffalo meat in favor of diversified suppliers, it opened short-term windows for Brazil and Australia to expand their reach. Similarly, the US-China trade dispute disrupted bilateral beef flows, causing ripple effects across the global supply chain. 

The most substantial trade flow in the global beef market is from Brazil to China. According to Brazil’s Foreign Trade Agency, Brazil exported 1.32 million mt of beef to China in 2024, making it the largest bilateral trade route for beef globally. Given that Brazil’s fresh, chilled, and frozen beef exports in 2024 were 2.54 million mt, exports to China represented about 52% of exports. While exact global trade volumes vary, this flow constitutes a significant portion of the international beef trade.

A calf remains with its mother until its eighth month, when it reaches about 195 kg. The weaning process begins in the ninth month. By the 18th month, the calf turns into a steer at about 300 kg. When the steer reaches 375 kg, it is considered ready to be finished by grass or grain feed. In Brazil, the finishing period is usually made up of 85% grass-fed and 15% grain-fed. 

When cattle are ready to be harvested, they are considered finished steers, with an idela weight of 540 kg or more. The ideal processing period is about seven to 10 days after it is bought by a beef packer, but it depends on the plant’s harvest schedule. 

Once the animal is harvested and dressed, the carcass should spend one day in the cold storage/chamber for inspection and sanitary maturation. The period from beef packing and distribution to the final destination depends on the location of the beef plant. 

The chart shows the process from the finishing period to the final consumer. 

Rising disposable incomes in East Asia have driven the surge in meat consumption over the last two decades. This has amplified demand for feed grains because the feed conversion ratio for pigs, cattle and chicken is greater than one. 

Some developed economies, such as the UK, have seen meat consumption decline as higher costs pushed people to opt for lower-cost alternatives, but growing prosperity across larger populations in Asia has still lifted aggregate global demand. The UN estimates that global consumption of beef, poultry and pork averaged 44 kg per person in 2024. 

The supply outlook is less clear, given diseases capable of eliminating herds and flocks from entire regions as Brazil’s poultry exporters experienced briefly in July 2024.